Challenges within and without: Rongmei Women’s Experiences in Society

- Lungsanliu P.

(A published article from The Place of Women in Naga Society published in 2018 by Naga Women Union Manipur and IWGIA)

The Rongmei Nagas are one of the many indigenous Mongoloid communities living in three States of Northeast India. They belong to the same cognate group known commonly by the coined nomenclature, ‘Zeliangrong’, consisting of the Rongmei, Zeme, Liangmai and Inpui/Puimei[1]. They have a common homeland, sharing a common history and culture except for dialect variations; and, taken together, they constitute one of the largest tribal groups having the largest tract of compact contiguous land.[2] But their land has been trifurcated under the three States in the Indian dominion, thereby, leaving the Zeliangrong people to several disadvantages and remain backward wherever they are. The main homeland of the Rongmei is the remote Western Hills of Manipur State of North East India now called Tamenglong District while we find settlements of some Rongmei Nagas in certain pockets of neighboring Districts and in the States of Assam and Nagaland.[3] Rongmei population is estimated to be 1, 28, 137 settling in a total of 247 villages. There are 196 villages in Manipur, 36 in Assam and 15 in Nagaland.[4] Meanwhile, according to Hill House Counting Assessment in 2010, out of the total population of 1, 05,558 in Tamenglong District, the male population accounted for 54,183, whereas the female population was 51,515.[5]We can therefore assume that out of the approximate total Rongmei population of 1, 28,137, there may be around 60,000 Rongmei women in all.

Historical Rendering

Since pre-colonial times, Meitei kings had been associated with the hill tribals. The Rongmeis who joined the services of these kings as labourers, security guards, maiba (seers), domestic helpers, etc., settled down near them in the patches of land provided by them. When the British came, they too used the tribal Rongmei as forced laborers and porters to carry their luggage from one place to another without any remuneration. In the early part of the 20^th century, Haipou Jadonang, a Rongmei mystic, initiated Naga Raj Movement against the British Colonial Rule. But he was executed by the British in 1931 after which his successor Gaidinliu, a teenage girl, organized her own army to fight the colonial rulers.

This uprising was suppressed by the British who captured and imprisoned Gaidinliu. The Kabui, as they were called in those days, were taken wherever the colonizer wanted for their requirement – even to Calcutta, Sylhet in Bangladesh, Shillong, Gauhati and many parts of British India. Many returned to nearby Manipur and Nagaland while a few stayed behind in those places mentioned[6] above, many of whom remain unknown to the majority of the ‘mainland’ Rongmei. In the 1950s, the Rongmeis later joined in the Nagas’ armed struggle for sovereignty started by A Z Phizo. In the 1960s through the 1980s, the Zeliangrong people under the leadership of Rani Gaidinliu demanded a separate administration within India for the Zeliangrong Nagas by uniting their trifurcated territory. But the movement was suspended in the larger interest of the Nagas’ struggle for sovereignty.

In 2012, the Rongmei along with the Zeme, Liangmai and Inpui have been separately recognized among the Scheduled Tribes by the Government of India. Before this, the Rongmei and the Inpui have been clubbed together with the common identity called Kabui while the Liangmai and Zeme were identified as Kacha Naga which was a misnomer handed down by the British. The Nagaland State Government recognized a section of Rongmei as one of the indigenous tribes in 2012 though with several discriminations and negative repercussions from other Naga tribes. In Assam there are about 36 Rongmei villages. Geographically divided Zeliangrongs including the Rongmei were pushed to the fringe economically and politically; their aspiration for a dignified life has remained unfulfilled. The tribals in Manipur State too have been demanding separate administration and autonomy from the non-tribal dominated government so as to be free from discrimination and to secure their rights to their lands and resources.

In this article, I am exploring the challenges and problems faced by Rongmei women keeping in mind their status in society in the midst of the changes and struggles the tribal people are living with. 

Marginalization of Women: From Headhunting to Modern Era

Headhunting, the kind of warfare performed only by men folk was a practice that principally underlined all Naga traditional history. The Rongmei term for headhunting days was Sangnaric. While men conspired to go to war, women were the active agents in the sustenance of village life. They engaged themselves in agriculture – ploughing, sowing, gleaning and reaping, and performed all kinds of domestic works.[7].

Since womenfolk did not participate in the institution of headhunting they were excluded from the Pei which is till today the highest decision-making body of any Rongmei village regarding issues of warfare, land, forest, area of cultivation, dispute settlement, etc. It also functions as the Village Court where its executive power is derived from unwritten customary laws and traditional practices. Women’s participation in the Village Pei/Court is permitted only when they are invited or accused or called forth as witnesses. Whatever the case, even when allowed to attend conflict resolution meetings in case of dispute, divorce or theft, they are not allowed to speak unless they are asked to. Thus, there are psychological and social barriers to their participation in village decision making. Scholars like Wati Longchar pointed out that one of the factors that marginalized tribal women in village polity is because of their non-participation in “headhunting”.[8]

The coming of the British and their modern influence upon life as well as the activities of Christian missionaries towards the people of the North East India made them realize the futility of this practice; and headhunting has been abandoned by both Christians and non-Christians.

Women in Public Sphere

“A woman is somebody with a wound”

Even though the Rongmei have stopped the practice of headhunting, village administration continues to be a male domain. The Village Pei (Council) continues to function as the authority in socio-political, legal matters and implementation of developmental schemes in the village level. Democratic elements have been introduced to bring about changes in the village polity yet the democratization of this institution was not accompanied with empowerment provision for women.

Many men simply cannot imagine women’s inclusion in village or tribal polity. Asked as to why women are excluded from leadership in village and tribal polity, the elders’ justification is: Ntumei thu zamv phunghmei de (a woman is somebody with a wound). Though not a common concept, people who question this status quo have been supplied with this mockery about women’s monthly cycle to justify the exclusion of women in public life and addressing in public. Many Rongmei people including women themselves are of the view that women should not address important gatherings be it social, political or religious ‘because it is not our custom’. Men are the primary receivers and holders of information in Rongmei society and women do not have equal access to information and resource training to face new issues leaving them ignorant and unconfident for leadership positions.

However, there has been a historical step taken by one Rongmei woman in village administration.  Dithuanliu Kamei of Machiang (Abungchiang) is the first woman to lead a Village Council as its Chairperson.  Machiang is a Rongmei village in Tamenglong District, Manipur, with about 189 households. Dithuanliu became the Village Chairperson in the milieu of a leadership conflict in the village council regarding access to financial power and government schemes especially the NREGS (National Rural Employment Generation Scheme). To prevent antagonism and conflict among the villagers, her uncle who was then the Village Chairman suggested that a woman’s leadership would be the best option for the sake of peace at the juncture. Thus Dithuanliu, a young lady in her early thirties and a graduate from the Nampou’s (Village Chief) family, was appointed in September 2009 even though there were male members within her family capable of the chairmanship.

After completing her first tenure, she came to office for the second tenure by an election in 2012 with 80% majority vote for her. She is actively involved in bringing positive change in her village.  Through her initiative, her village got electrified and got a water reservoir to relieve the water scarcity that had been necessitating the people to walk half an hour down to collect a pot of water. She has done a commendable advocacy on forest preservation as the means to conserve the depleting water resource in her village. Even though there are no other women members in the Village Council, she has sought to include women in various village development committees. Men folk tend to ignore government’s directions on women’s quota in village level bodies, but with her leadership, she has put all efforts to include women members in Village Health and Sanitation Committee, School Management Development Committee, Integrated Watershed Development Committee, and Vigilance Monitoring Committee as per Government’s directions.

Dithuanliu is actively involved with the wider Iring (Aling) Area Development Committee which comprises 14 villages; she is one of the key representatives of the people overseeing the Myanmar-Halflong Asian Highway crossing the region and is the Treasurer of the All Tribal Chiefs Forum, Manipur. Even though she has faced hardships as a woman having to complete tasks in time bound manner, she affirms that she has received encouragement from all quarters and has never been discriminated by people for being a woman while holding this post.  Dithuanliu believes that both men and women have equal intellect and with patience, determination and by being responsible, women can take leadership in this generation.[9] Can the encouragement that Dithuanliu receive from her male colleagues from within and outside her tribe be an indicator that majority of the Rongmei are ready to accept women in leadership position in the village level? The answer remains with the multitude of Rongmei men in village polity.

Even though most Rongmei cannot accept women’s involvement in traditional political institution, they cannot deny women’s involvement in electoral politics because of the “opportunity of equal access to political structures” provided by the Indian Constitution.  Very few Rongmei women have risen above their social horizons to participate in electoral politics. A recent development in this area is in Lungbungjang area, Cachar, Assam where Ms. Lumgailiu Rongmei became the first ever elected President of Gaon Panchayat (Lakhinagar G.P.)[10] from Ramgaizang village on February 14, 2013. The Rongmei community in Assam has been living as a minority group and never had the opportunity to get such presidential post.[11]Guiliangliu Panmei is the only Rongmei woman in Manipur so far to have contested, though she lost, in a State Legislative Assembly Election in the year 2000 against other five male candidates.

On the one hand, women do not join politics in the forefront because they are not mentally empowered due to lack of awareness, lack of role models and support and because of the attitude of the people, particularly of men who consider women traditionally unfit for political and serious issues except to utilize them in supportive roles. On the other hand, women do not get involved in politics because they are poor.

Economic empowerment is required to encourage women to involve in politics. The responsibility of the home and the mindset of the society keep women from freely involving in political leadership. These along with the present scenario of relegating politics as a dirty game make women apathetic to politics. The Rongmei women are yet to realize that to uplift the people especially womenfolk, it is important for women’s voice to be heard and considered at the decision and policy making level of governance rather than being at the receiving end.

Personal Sphere: Shifting Identities and Loss of Status

“Ntumei thu kakai khuang maek ge”

This is a common Rongmei saying which means ‘A woman has no clan’.[12] A woman’s clan identity is always in relation to men as a daughter, a wife or a boy’s mother. She is considered the property of her paternal clan before her marriage and of her husband’s clan after marriage. This is very clear in the customary practice of settling adultery and rape cases in which the men consider the act as an encroachment of their property. Penalty is demanded by the male relatives from the culprit’s clan or relatives. Often they demand land or money as penalty which in no way benefit the female victim.

Since the Rongmei practice exogamy, patrilocal residence, and patrilineal family line of inheritance, boys are preferred to girls because of the fear that there will be no one to carry on the family line without them. After marriage the Rongmei woman loses her membership in her paternal clan and in her community or church if she marries outside.

Earlier, before the coming of western education, no written script was available. A married woman attains double identity – she is her clan’s aluh (daughter) and her husband’s clan’s kaipui (wife/mother). Now with the coming of the written script and influence of the western patriarchal ideologies and gender roles, married women have come to be formally addressed with their husband’s surnames and no longer by their officially documented surnames – which can be understood as an influence of colonialism. The community addresses a woman by her husband’s surname without confirming if she has officially changed her name by an affidavit. Earlier, most women did not have names formalized in official documents but now many educated and professional women do have official names from young age which they find inconvenient to keep changing after their marriage. Even if a woman has officially changed her surname to that of her husband’s, if or when she is divorced or widowed and happens to return to her parental home, she has to change her surname again. And again, she has to change her title if she gets remarried to another man. Thus the secondary status accorded to women in the traditional social system is further worsened by external influences. However, this does not mean that a Rongmei woman is not cherished by her family and society.

Bride Price and a woman’s value: 

A woman’s value in Rongmei society becomes evident mainly during her engagement and marriage. She is not easily given away in marriage by her kinsmen. The boy’s kin are to respectfully approach the girl’s family for her hand. In the past, the formal marriage proposal for Khaemthan or Holy marriage was usually done by bringing a pot of rice wine and later followed by the payment of Bride Price agreed upon by the two parties. The first installment of the Bride Price may be paid on the day of engagement.  Bride Price is usually paid by the groom’s family to the bride’s parents in the form of paddy[13]. The bride price is determined by the status of the bride - whether she is a virgin, a widow or a divorcee. After the bride price is fully paid, the girl’s parents will arrange a customary function called Puatsumei (packing up for the bride) by cooking the meat of a sizeable boar and sending to the groom’s house along with a sufficient quantity of sticky rice beer.  There are other forms of Bride Price such as Mandu - which is paid to her family if she has died before her Bride Price was cleared. Maigong Mann (Widow’s Price) is paid by the late husband’s family to the widow’s parents if the former do not want her to go back to her parents. If it is not settled, the widow can go back home. Rou mann (Bone Price) is paid after the death of the wife by the one who inherits her husband’s property. This is the last payment for a bride which is not fixed but agreed between two parties.[14]

The woman’s kinfolk closely observe the way she is treated by her husband’s family and clan. If she is mistreated, her relatives can raise the issue of taking her back. Or in case the same clan comes with any other marriage proposal in the future the girl’s clan can bring up such subject against the man’s clan and even decide to withhold the girl’s hand in marriage. Nowadays paying Bride Price is no longer a common practice due to economic reasons but it has become a tradition to bring a boar to the girl’s home and serve food on the day of the marriage proposal regardless of the type of marriage. But expensive weddings are replacing these practices. While the practice of Bride Price has become uncommon, the practice of Puatsumei (Packing up for the bride) is religiously continued especially among Christians as a day of blessing a daughter and arranging gifts/dowry to take to her new home.

Aluh Paumei:

During Phutuan Ngai (a festival celebrated after all the ploughing of the field is done), one day is set for Aluh Paumei  in which families send food and rice wine to their married daughters’ families.  This is a practice of honoring the married daughters of the family whose Bride Prices have been received.  The husband’s family would also cook special food on the next day and give them in return.  This is not a common practice anymore but seems to have evolved into something like Ningol Chakouba of the Meiteis in Manipur in which Rongmei families especially in the Imphal Valley also invite all the married daughters to their paternal homes for a feast.

People take great care to invite all the married daughters during all important family events like weddings or plentiful harvest. Their shares of the food or gifts are given according to tradition. These customary gifts are received turn by turn by the womenfolk from their respective families and clans as they grow older. The final and biggest honour an elderly woman receives traditionally from her father or brothers is called Nap tann tiimei, a rare practice nowadays.  After a plentiful harvest, her brothers would send paddy (Nap tann) through sons-in-law as much as they can carry on their backs to the eldest Aluh (daughter/s) of the family. 

Domestic Sphere: Socially Assigned Roles

Domestically a woman is overburdened with numerous roles and expectations assigned by the society. The daily domestic chores, child rearing, and manual work at home have been unconsciously considered by everyone to be purely women’s role. Even if circumstances demand that men help in the domestic work, it is considered a favor done to women. A daughter too has enormous roles in the domestic affairs. Workload is not equally shared among boys and girls in the home. Girls do most of the work while usually boys go out to roam and play. Womenfolk, being busy with household activities do not have equal access to information, public life and leadership as men do. This division of roles is one main reason that hinders women’s social mobility and taking up of leadership status outside the home. But domestic duties are invisible activities and are undervalued.

Nowadays women do not simply stay at home but perform many activities that contribute to the family’s economy. Gender disparity measures reveal that men’s responsibility is shrinking in that men no longer go to war or actively work in the fields, whereas women’s work frontier is expanding as they take over works traditionally designated as ‘male domain’ besides being nurturers and care-givers in the domestic realm.[15]This is becoming visible too in Rongmei society.

And if a woman works outside the home, she is not relieved of the household responsibilities unlike for men. Today, women face what is called ‘double burden’ and ‘triple burden’ of taking care of family members, household activities along with jobs and obligations outside the home. 

A man in leadership position shared about how he was chided by a senior friend for carrying his kid around with him, saying that it was unbecoming to his status. Such is the attitude of the older generation. Still, it is encouraging to see some young couples working out between themselves in the care of children while women go to work.

Regarding decision making, a woman may take most decisions relating to household matters but hardly does a wife make a final decision with regard to the children’s career, procurement of major assets, choice of faith or religion, village matters or political candidate to support without the consent and decision of her husband. She is expected to blindly follow her husband’s decision or that of his clan. A woman tells of her experience:

My husband’s clan and my parent’s clan were on the opposite sides of a land dispute. When the conflict became serious the village Pei got divided into two. The dissenting group formed a new Village Council. Eventually the Church got split into two. As Government funds and schemes got divided between the two village bodies, I am expected to blindly follow my husband’s family or clan decision in the matter of political candidate in the MLA(Member of Legislative Assembly) and MP (Member of Parliament) elections, where to cultivate or earn my NREGS wages(100 days wages under National Rural Employment Generation Scheme) and which church or denomination to go for worship. When I did not go by their decision, they told me that I could go back to my parents. To prevent further chaos and for the sake of my children, I submitted to their diktat.

Economic Sphere

Mere Custodians of Male Property

Rongmei society follows the patrilineal system of inheritance in which the youngest son inherits the ancestral home. The father can distribute his land and properties to his other children as he wishes. Traditionally women are not entitled to inherit their parent’s immovable assets. If a man dies without a male child, his nearest kinsman will inherit his properties even if there are daughters.[16] As long as she is living in her parents’ home, a daughter may utilize her family land and property but she leaves them all behind when she gets married and becomes a caretaker of her husband’s family assets. She may be gifted moveable property such as paddy, furniture, jewellery and clothes but traditionally immoveable assets are divided among her brothers.

However in some cases a woman is given a patch of land or forest – a rambou – by her father or brothers if they own enough land and so desire to give. Such cases are more common if a woman returns as a widow, divorcee or has a husband without land to settle or has no share of forest area (rambou) to depend on for livelihood. In most occasions such land will not go to her husband’s family but may be taken back in the future when she dies. Or it may be passed on to her married daughter if she so needs it. But with land becoming scarce, these practices are becoming fewer as men folk increase their grip on their landholdings in the backdrop of the rising value of land against increasing population and human wants. There are cases of male relatives selling off land allotted to the daughter without her or her immediate kin’s knowledge creating discord among family members. Changes in social and economic structure and cohesiveness are diminishing these traditional practices of care and respect for the Rongmei women.

A widow is just the custodian of her husband’s landed property if her son is still a minor. Another stark reality regarding the discrimination of Rongmei women surfaces in this area of inheritance and ownership of property. If a woman has no son, her life is more insecure in her husband’s home. A recent incident of Ramgailiu[17] speaks of the precarious condition of the multitude of women at the mercy of men brought up in a patriarchal society.

After the death of her husband, the brothers-in-law of Ramgailiu started acting indifferently towards her. They told her that since she and her husband had no boy-offspring, the daughters are not entitled to the property. They started envying their home entitled to her late husband. The men and their wives started treating her badly that she knew they wanted her to leave. So she decided at last to return to her parents’ household. Other two similar cases happened in that same village the following year. 

Even if a woman brings up her child born out of wedlock because the man is already married or had denied the baby as his, after some years the man’s kin can come and claim the child by giving some amount of money to the woman.  The child can continue to live with its mother but from then on he/she will be counted as belonging to the father’s clan. This payment is called “Nakuanlan tiimei”.[18]

Someone sadly pointed out saying: Women do not have the right to own even their children which is the fruit of their painful labor. There is no law to protect their rights. There is therefore, nothing that a woman can claim as theirs either in their fathers’ house or in their husbands’ except a little amount of moveable properties given by her parents at the time of marriage. This kind of treatment is inhumane. It is a serious issue that should be taken into special consideration by legislators of all levels as well as by people at large in order to improve the condition of women.[19]

Few women have started taking up their case to the law courts with the help of some NGOs. For the first time in 2010-2011, a woman fought for the custody of her children while settling her divorce. She won the case which allowed her to keep her children if they wish to go to her. Two of her children are living with her. Thereafter, some other women who have been widowed or abandoned by their husbands are following suit and seeking legal help for the custody of their children as well as financial sanction for their upbringing. Slowly women are turning to family courts away from customary law which has no sanction for them anymore.

Religious Sphere

The Glass Ceiling in Church Ministry:

The majority (approx. 80%) of Rongmei have been converted to Christianity with the remaining still following the traditional ancestral religion. The year 2014 marked the commemoration of 100 years of Christianity among Rongmei people. People claim to have come out from the ‘dark days of headhunting into the light’ through the Christian Gospel. But along with Christianity came the Western male-oriented ideologies and interpretation of the Bible thereby curtailing women ministries as well as involvement in decision making bodies.

Churches have been encouraging both men and women to undergo theological training in preparation for church ministries. There are around 100 theologically trained women[20] in Rongmei churches in Manipur who are as qualified as their male counterparts. But the notion of ‘Women-lead-women-and-children’ still holds strong among the churches as a result of the influence left behind by pioneer leaders and evangelists groomed in fundamental conservative teachings. Some churches do not give platform for women to address the general congregation of the church.

Within the Baptist Church which is the largest denomination followed by the Rongmei, there is a record of 61 male ordained as Reverends[21] but there has been no female pastor and no ordained women Minister as yet. Leadership in the churches, Board of Deacons,[22] the various departments and associations are dominated by the men except for the Women Department and Sunday school department. At a snail's pace, we are witnessing women being inducted into leadership roles in the local church. Neikanlong Baptist Church in Imphal has two deaconesses out of five. Emmanuel Baptist Church and Tamenglong Baptist Church in Tamenglong town have one deaconess each as token representatives. There are no women as church Secretaries or Youth Pastors. Tamenglong Baptist Church which is the biggest Rongmei Church appointed women to the posts of Youth Worker, Sunday School Superintendent and Mission Secretary.[23]

Again at the Association[24] level, in the history of RNBA (Rongmei Naga Baptist Association in Manipur) with an official record of 7000-7500 baptized women, no woman has ever led as Executive Secretary. The Chairperson or Secretary of all different departments except Women Department and evangelists are all men. The topic of women’s leadership is an anathema to many people’s ears. Voices in favor of this issue are still in the periphery. Some churches impose head covering upon women during worship. Previous RNBA Women Secretaries in the past experienced discrimination to the extent of being made to sit among the children in some village churches during official team visits while other male members were invited to sit on the podium along with the pastors and deacons.[25] However this extent of discrimination is not experienced by the present Women Secretary. One progress experienced by women in ministry is that most churches are giving their pulpit for women to preach except one or two Rongmei churches.[26]

The biggest gathering of Rongmei Baptist women under RNBA happens every ten years on the occasion of the RNBA Women Conference. Only in the 3^rd Women Conference in 2006, speakers have started highlighting about women empowerment such as the need for 50-50 in decision making process and equality. This triggered negative responses from the older conservative male leaders. In the 4^th Women Conference in 2015, women ordination has been generally highlighted in the gathering by a resource person. Leaders sensed that the time is not yet ripe for a thorough discussion and conclusive public statement. But the discourse has been started and there seems to be general awareness and acceptance among the educated womenfolk and few male leaders.[27] In the ongoing consultations conducted by the RNBA Women Department to bring out its Vision and Mission statements and future strategies, the leaders discussed upon the need to be ready with women who can be recommended for ordination as and when the ordination of women is accepted by the church.[28]

In 2014 during the Annual Business Session of Tamenglong Baptist Church, some members of the Women Department raised the agenda on women ordination for a pioneer women leader. The responses from the men were as usual: pointing to biblical passages written in early Judeo-Greek context that restrict women’s leadership. When we tried to sustain the discussion, some deacons became very agitated and threatened that ‘if this discussion is not stopped, we will start quarrelling.” Every now and then, some people have tried to raise this issue of women as pastors and ordained ministers in the RNBA churches but the majority of the men-folk strongly oppose it even though they have no problem with women leadership in secular offices. The issue continues to be hushed up by leaders for the sake of church unity.

The seven Rongmei Baptist churches in Nagaland come under the umbrella of RBA.  Due to lack of trained ministers in these churches, women are comparatively taking significant leadership roles. The key post of Secretary of the Development Department of RBA which is doing a major role in uplifting the poor Rongmei villagers in Nagaland is a woman – Akeina Gonmei. A woman (Mathiuthuanliu) has also served as Mission Secretary. There are women serving as church secretaries and Sunday School Superintendents and deacons.[29] Kariugailiu Kamei Koza, who served as Associate Pastor in Rongmei Baptist Church, Kohima, for a term was the first woman associate pastor among the Rongmei Nagas.[30]Rev. Dr. A.G. Kamei in Nagaland is the first Rongmei woman to be ordained as a Reverend but it was not given by Rongmei Church.[31]Meanwhile in the inter-cultural setting, we have two Rongmei women Gaigongmei Gangmei serving as Associate Pastor of Zeliangrong Christian Fellowship Delhi and Ms Ninguang Kamei serving as the Pastor of Rehoboth Church in Delhi at present. When this news was posted in Rongmei social networking sites, it sparked a heated debate and criticism from Rongmei men mainly from fundamental circles.[32] In these debates regarding women’s position in the church, people continually quote the biblical passages indicating the Bible does not allow women to lead or be above men.

Fundamental theological and biblical interpretations are to be blamed for this ‘glass ceiling’ that discriminates against women from serving according to their calling and capacity. Some men and women who studied in colleges teaching contextual theology have been exposed to gender issues and are open to women’s partnership in church leadership. But most Rongmei men and women opt to go to fundamental colleges due to lack of guidance and finance. Whoever raises these issues is considered to be diluting the church with false teachings and thus many continue toeing the middle line.

Society's tolerance to violence against women

Rongmei society seems to have become tolerant and apathetic to crimes and violence against women. Wife battering by drunken husbands, rising rape cases in society, constant fear of sexual assault by men in conflict situation brought about by our Naga people’s struggle for sovereignty, clashes between the Indian military and the Naga undergrounds, infighting among the Naga underground factions, all these place women in vulnerable situation. There have been several rape incidents of Rongmei women including small baby girls. Wife battering by inebriated husbands are considered issues between husband and wife that need no interference from relatives or society. ‘I suffer for the sake of my children’ is what most of the exploited women say. Sexual assault and rape cases within the community are considered inter-clan matters to be solved by concerned relatives without any legal consolation for the victim.[33] The customary laws enforced in these cases are hardly in favor of the female victims but are taken advantage of by the male relatives for their self-interests like demanding land from the condemned party.

In 2012, following the rape of a Rongmei woman chilly hawker by four men in a truck on the intervening night of March 21 and 22, valley based activist groups came to Tamenglong to show their solidarity by conducting a rally. The turn-out of the local people was so dismal that they went away disappointed with the apathetic nature of the Rongmei public.

Even the religious bodies/ churches remain as silent spectators most of the time. They never empathize with the victims or show their solidarity. Society tries to find fault with their behavior and further stigmatize them. During the case of the five girls in domestic helpers’ service in Malaysia and Singapore who became victims of sexual harassment but were rescued by Women and Child Rights groups, church people gathered where they were sheltered to admonish the already traumatized women. They even attempted to give a press release emphasizing that women like these should not bring bad name to our people again in this manner.[34]

Rongmei Women Confronting Challenges

Women’s voices for women’s rights have been raised every now and then among the academic circles in writings and women conferences. But there has been no strong and sustained effort for action so far. Surely the awareness is growing among the young women through education and social media. At the grassroots, women are organizing themselves into Self Help Groups (SHGs) in order to help one another economically by borrowing at low interests from the group money rather than from money lenders at high interest rates thereby helping towards breaking the cycle of poverty. Several NGOs have been helping in forming SHGs by providing initial capital along with gender awareness seminars but these groups need constant encouragement and monitoring.

Every locality has a women’s society or network. When alcoholism is rampant especially during election time, the womenfolk form themselves into groups and take turns to position themselves at key locations to check drunkenness and brawling, drunken driving, smuggling of liquor and sale of intoxicants (this is called nisha bandh). Sometimes they also ransack illicit liquor hubs, capture drug peddlers and drug users and even check gambling and revelry.

Zeliangrong Tanpui

Rongmei women have been engaged for years with their Zeme, Liangmai and Puimei sisters in working for the welfare of the society through an organization called Zeliangrong Tanpui also called Zeliangrong Women Front. It has been involved in maintaining peace in Zeliangrong areas, spearheading the Nisha Bandh movement, preservation and promotion of arts and culture and organizing demonstrations, rallies and seminars according to the need of the situation. Since its inception in 1982, Zeliangrong Tanpui has seized approximately 5000 (Five Thousand) litres of illicit country liquor from different places in Tamenglong district and handed the people over to the local police station for taking legal action.

Besides, in the wake of ethnic conflict among the hill tribes of Manipur since 1992 the organization has in two occasions detected the excesses of the Indian security forces in its action of counter insurgency and against the violation of human rights. The Zeliangrong Women Organization has sponsored public rally against the 11 Bihar Regiment for their heinous crimes of killing an innocent cultivator from Tamenglong Village in November, 1993. The cases of security forces’ excesses at Longmai and Khumji Kaiba were also fought by the Zeliangrong women where they confronted with the security forces for their inhuman treatment of the innocent public and killing one disabled Namjokpou in the name of counter insurgency operation. When the Ahu/Barak Range Zeliangrong villages were under siege and were subjected to atrocious torture for a week by the 21^st Rajputana Rifles in August 1995 and when all means had failed including the civil administration to rescue our people in distress, the Zeliangrong Tanpui strongly came out and confronted the army authorities and rescued more than 60 victims and took them to the hospitals.[35]On the night of 31^st October 2012, the women of Tamenglong spearheaded the torch bearing peace rally to protest against factional shootings in Tamenglong town area.[36]

Rongmei Lu Phuam (Rongmei Women’s Organization)

Rongmei Lu Phuam (RLP) which was formed in 2004 consists of all Rongmei women from the three States of Assam, Manipur and Nagaland and it was led by Panti Gonmei as President, Ph.Amunliu Gangmei as Vice President, Atina Gangmei as Secretary and Priscilla Panmei as Asst. Secretary and G. Khamsinliu as the Treasurer. The Rongmei Women Organization/RLP is at present led by Panti Gonmei as President and Aram Pamei as Secretary.

Their activities are mentioned below.

1. RLP/RWO has been involved in working for justice towards various rape victims. Till date, it has involved itself in fighting for seven rape cases in both the hill and valley. These works consist of sending fact finding teams, documentations, helping to file charge sheets against the culprits and condemning the acts through press releases and thereby pressurising the government to take lawful action against the culprits. It also provided financial help to the needy victims or sought compensation for the victims. The officials have witnessed court hearings and kept track of the proceedings.

2.  The President, Secretary and other officers have been part of 17 Fact Finding Team Visits in many cases of excesses, murder and human rights violations against civilians by Indian army and insurgent groups.

3. The Organization has besides its own Conferences, organized several seminars and workshops on Mediation Skills, Non-Violence and Conflict Transformation, and a Friendly Football Match. It has felicitated 6 outstanding Rongmei women. In 2009, during the First RLP Conference a book called Rongmei Lu Di was published as souvenir. During this program, competitions in March Pass parade, Traditional Dancing Dress, Traditional Wedding Dress Model, Theme Song Competition in Traditional Tune, Football, Solo and Group Song, Debate and Games and Sports were organized. A Memorial Stone was erected in commemoration of the event.

4. Rongmei Lu Phuam has been engaged in brokering peace and negotiation among conflicting groups and it took major part in taking care of deceased bodies during conflict and provided relief to refugees affected by inter-tribal clashes between the Zeme and Dimasa in Assam and aided victims of anti-conversion movements in various Rongmei villages.

5. RLP has been actively involved in campaigning against Tipaimukh Dam, Oil Exploration in tribal areas and many other issues.[37]

Rongmei women and their associations are the guardians for the well being and harmony of the community. But their activities have been mainly community-oriented to solve day to day crisis in the society. Their activism has also been in support of the larger tribal bodies which fight against armed forces, against construction of mega dams, mining, and Land Use Policies and for alternative political arrangements for Nagas. The tribal apex bodies like Zeliangrong Union, Zeliangrong Baudi, Zeliangrong Youth Front and Rongmei Council are all male dominated organizations. Women’s organizations such as Zeliangrong Women Union, Zeliangrong Pui Baudi (recently formed) and Rongmei Lu Phuam are understood as women’s wing of these apex bodies even though they may have been formed independently. They are expected to speak in the same tune as the ‘parent’ bodies. If they raise gender rights issues, they get minimal support from these bodies. Women’s rights are taken as minor and individual issues in the context of the wider issues of the community and tribe.

In the overall tribal struggle in North East India, women’s contribution to the struggle of our people as a whole are often not recognized or acknowledged. Women’s concerns have been ignored and forgotten in the cause of the wider struggle and all policies that have been made for the tribals have overlooked their plight. Rongmei women are only beginning to be aware of this discrimination.

The Way Ahead

Rongmei women like many other indigenous women do not see themselves as victims. Faced with discrimination, they have been forced to develop skills and strategies for their own survival, and for the survival of their people and culture. Rongmei women’s activism has not yet taken the shape of a sustained women’s rights movement. Sometimes women’s issues were taken up on International Women’s Day, etc. But Rongmei women are yet to actively take their voices and issues of women’s Right to Equality to the level of legislation. No particular strategy seems to have been formulated to take the issues of women to the legislative level except sensitization on women’s condition and rights or voices raised against discrimination of women now and then in few public and social media forums or write-ups by some concerned individuals. Unity, networking and sorority among women, long term strategy and organized action are the need of the hour.

On the one hand, the majority of Rongmei women are unaware of their situation and rights though they are actively contributing to the social and economic life of the society. On the other hand, many women are mentally empowered through education but are hindered from participating in the decision making process due to men-made social boundaries such as patriarchal customary practices and cultural roles and fundamental religious teaching.

The way forward would be to gain the support of men by creating awareness among the opinion makers such as the community leaders, teachers, social activists, church leaders, by raising awareness through education and by encouraging women to involve in changing the policies and practices that marginalize us. Women are often placed in a situation where they must deal with new challenges and effects without an informed perspective. They need equal access to information and training activities from concerned bodies so that a condition where the men are the sole primary receivers and holders of information does not persist. Training and education will provide us with the skill to develop professionally, economically and involve politically. Attempts that allow for women’s input and participation need to be scheduled according to their convenience keeping in mind the lives they lead and roles to fulfill as care givers and nurturers.

Awareness of and change in the status of women need to begin with the church which is the most powerful institution in today’s Christian dominated Rongmei society. The Rongmei churches need to open their doors for women as equal partners in the church ministry. Teachers of religion need to change their rigid mindset and learn how to apply the liberal message of the Bible contextually. Customary laws which depend on oral traditions need to be modified so that no section of our society is discriminated and then codified according to the change of the times.

Above all, from the examples of women like Rani Gaidinliu who rose above her society to lead her people for freedom, and also of women like Dithuanliu Kamei, Lumgailiu Rongmei and other women leaders in the past and present time, we can still hopefully say that we can overcome whatever barriers that exist and rise above the male dominated society if women are united, possess courage and intellect, and our men supportive.

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[1] The prefix of Puimei was not included in the ‘Zeliangrong’ nomenclature coined in 1947. Because of this the Puimei later moved away from being a part of  Zeliangrong organizations.

[2] Benjamin Gangmei, “Political empowerment and Tribal Women of Manipur” http://www.sinlung.com/2010/04/political -empowerment-and-tribal-women.html#39dVNaTT6, accessed on August 12, 2014.

[3] The Zeliangrongs are found in large number under Dima-Hasao District of Assam, Peren district of Nagaland and Tamenglong District of Manipur as a unit while Zeliangrong villages in Loktak Project are under Churachandpur district of Manipur. The westernmost Zeliangrong villages are found in Cachar District of Assam, while its adjoining villages fall under Jiribam Sub-division of Imphal East. Over 88 villages are found in Manipur Valley and its foothill, under different administrative set ups – Imphal East, Imphal West, Senapati, Bishnupur and Thoubal. In Nagaland, pockets of Zeliangrong villages are found in Kohima and Dimapur.

[4] “Rongmei Population (Annexure B)” in Hundred Years with Christ (1914-2014): A Commemorative volume of Rongmei Christian Centenary Celebration-2014, p.286-289.

[5] K.P. Kamiuthuan, “The Rongmei Naga” in A Gift to Churches: Souvenir of RNBA Silver Jubilee, Dec. 9-11,2011, edited by Thuanliang Gangmei, 189-190. According to this Assessment in 2010 Rongmei population in Manipur was 1,05,558 in Tamenglong District alone with an additional figure of about 45,400 from Greater Imphal, 10,500 in Nagaland, and 1,230 in Assam with a total population of 1,62,668.

[6]Gairiangmei Naga, answer to a query posted by the author on Rongmei Naga Facebook Group on August 11, 2014.Accessed on August 12, 2014.

[7] Eyingbeni Humtsoe, “Women’s Experience of “Sorrow” as a Source for Doing Theology from Naga Perspective” in No More Sorrow in God’s Garden of Justice: Tribal Women Doing Theology, Women Study Series No. 4 edited by Limatula Longkumer,(Jorhat: Women Study Department,ETC, 2007), p 4.

[8] Wati Longchar, “Headhunting: A Socio-religious Factor for Oppression of Women in North East India,” Good News for North East India. A Theoligical Reader, ed. Renthy Keitzar, (Guwahati: The Christian Literature Centre, 1995), 198,199.

[9]Telephonic conversation with Dithuanliu Gangmei, Village Chairman Abungchiang on 27^th January, 2015.

[10]Local governance in Assam has a three-tier set up - Gaon Panchayat with 6000 - 10,000 Population; Anchalik Panchayat (at the block level) and Mahkuma Parishad at the sub-divisional level.

[11] A Facebook post by Puanthan Dangmei in Zeliangrong Naga Facebook group on April 30, 2013.

[12] Her clan is determined by her marriage.

[13] The bride price varies from village to village and may range between 80 measures (buanh) to 200 measures of paddy. It may be paid in installments.

[14] Dichamang Pamei, Liberty to Captives, A ZBCC Platinum Jubilee Publication, (n.p.:n.d.), p. 42.

[15] UA Shimray, ‘Women’s Work in Naga Society:Household work, workforce Participation and Division of Labour”. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4414929?uid=3738256&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&sid=21101871413301, accessed on June 12, 2013 at 3.30 pm.

[16]Op cit., Thuanliang Gangmei ed., “Women in RNBA”, 64.

[17] Name has been changed.

[18] Jimmy Pamei, Inriangluang Village, September 19, 2015.

[19]  Thuanliang Gangmei ed., “Women in RNBA”, in Souvenir RNBA Youth Conference, 2008, 65.

[20] Telephone conversation with Ms. Gaimuna, Women Secretary, RNBA, 2^nd April, 2013.

[21] Thaikhui Rongmei, “Who’s Who and Important Events”, in Hundred Years with Christ (1914-2014) A Commemorative volume of Rongmei Christian Centenary Celebration-2014,202-206.

[22] The Board of Deacons can be called the main decision making body of the Baptist Church.

[23] Ms. Gaikhuiliu and Ningreiliu Panmei served as Youth Workers/Directors for a term each; Ms. Abuan Riamei is the Sunday School Superintendent and Ms. Gaihiamliu Panmei has been recently appointed as Mission Secy. at Tamenglong Baptist Church, Manipur.

[24]The Baptist churches come together under a parent body like the Rongmei Naga Baptist Association (RNBA) in Manipur, Rongmei Baptist Association,Nagaland (RBAN) and Regular Fundamental Baptist Churches (RFBC) in Assam. The writer has focused on the Baptist denomination and regrets for not presenting the scenario in other denominations due to lack of information.

[25] Interview with Azanliu, Former Women Secretary, RNBA, at Tamenglong on 3^rd Jan 2010.

[26] Telephone conversation with Gaimuna, Women Secretary RNBA.

[27] Telephone conversation Pouguiliu Pamei, President of Women Society, Tamenglong Baptist Church and leader in RNBA Women Dept. and  30^th June 2016.

[28] Gaimuna, Women Secretary RNBA, 10^th June, 2016.

[29] Lungdapou Riamei, Youth Secretary, RBAN, Correspondence, Zalukie, 16^th January, 2010.

[30] Ajuna Pame (ed), “Kariuganliu Kamei Koza” in Rongmei Lu Di,13.

[31] A.G. Kamei is ordained by her institution.

[32]A Facebook post by Kadima Gangmei on June 12, 2014.

[33]There was however an incident in which a man who raped a woman was beaten to death by his relatives unintentionally in Tamenglong.

[34] As told by an NGO worker.

[35]“A Brief Report of The Zeliangrong Tanpui” presented by Ashinliu Remmei, President and D. Songdiliu Secretary, Zeliangrong Tanpui, Tamenglong, November 2,1995.

[36]Benjamin Gondaimei posted in in Women of Zeliangrong Facebook Group. Accessed on June 15, 2014.

[37]Aram Pamei, “Rongmei Lu Phuam Kahoumei Khatni Taan Tanpat Kanmei,” A Report presented on 5 March 2014 at Rongmei Lu Phuam (RLP) Executive Committee Meeting held at RLP Office, Tarung.